ATTENTION:<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n BEFORE YOU READ THE ABSTRACT OR CHAPTER ONE OF THE PROJECT TOPIC BELOW, PLEASE READ THE INFORMATION BELOW.THANK YOU!<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n INFORMATION:<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n YOU CAN GET THE COMPLETE PROJECT OF THE TOPIC BELOW. THE FULL PROJECT COSTS N5,000 ONLY. THE FULL INFORMATION ON HOW TO PAY AND GET THE COMPLETE PROJECT IS AT THE BOTTOM OF THIS PAGE. OR YOU CAN CALL: 08068231953, 08168759420<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n WHATSAPP US ON 08137701720<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n ANTIULCEROGENIC AND IMMUNOSTIMULATORY PROPERTIES OF THE AQUEOUS EXTRACT OF THE LEAVES OF FICUS CAPENSIS IN WISTAR ALBINO RATS<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n ABSTRACT<\/p>\n\n\n\n Ficuscapensis leaves have always played a great role in preventing, controlling and alleviating various disease conditions. This study was aimed at validating the traditional use of the leaves of Ficuscapensisin folk medicine as an anti- ulcer and immunostimulatory agent. Diclofenac sodium (100mg\/kg) body weight was administered intraperitoneally to induce ulcer. Seven groups(five rats each)were used. Groups 2(150mg ranithidine),4,5,6and7 served as the ulcer test groups while group1 and 3 served as ulcer untreated group(negative and positive controls respectively).After 24 hour fasting, all the rats were sacrificed and the stomach was removed for observation of ulcer score, ulcer index and ulcer indices(SOD,CAT, MDA and GSH).Five groups(five rats each) were used to investigate delayed type hypersensitivity(DTH),humoral antibody(HA)and Myelosuppression. Groups 2,3, 4 and 5 (Levamisol) served as the test groups while group1 was the negative control.DTH in rats was sensitized by subcutaneous (SC) injection of 0.1ml of 109 cells \/ml sheep red blood cells (SRBCs) (day 0) in the planter region of the right hind foot paw and was challenged on day 5 by SC injection of the same concentration of antigen into the left hind paw. The oedema produced by antigenic challenge in the left hind paw was measured with a micrometer screw guage. HA in rats was immunized by ip injection of 0.2ml of 109SRBCs\/ml on day 0 and was challenged by injecting the same concentration on day 7.Primary antibody titre was determined on day 7(before the challenge) and the secondary titre was determined on day 14 by the haemagglutination technique. The highest dilution showing visible haemagglutination was taken as the antibody titre. Cyclophosphamide (30 mg\/kg, i.p.) was used to induce myelo suppression and levamisole (50 mg\/kg)was used as standard immune stimulating agents. After five days, blood sample was collected using rectobulba plexus in the eye. The before induction, after induction and after treatment blood samples obtained were used to determine the haematological parameters(WBC,Hb, PCV, RBC).The qualitative and quantitative phytochemical analysis showed that the aqueous extract contained: reducing sugar(543.47 \u00b1 0.004), saponins (2.39 \u00b1 0.0032), tannin(7.57\u00b1 0.0015), flavonoid (1.27 \u00b1 0.0321), soluble carbohydrates(3.92 \u00b1 0.0030), alkaloid(3.34 \u00b1 0.0015), steroid(1.04 \u00b1 0.0321), hydrogen cyanide(1.61 \u00b1 0.0026), glycoside(2.37 \u00b1 0.0025), terpenoid (0.89 \u00b1 0.0025),fats and oil.The acute toxicity test of the extract showed no toxicity up to 5000 mg\/kg body weight. The ulcer index decreased significantly (p<0.05) in the treatment groups compared to positive control (group 3).MDA activity decreases significantly(p<0.05) compared to group 3. The antioxidant enzymes: CAT,GSH and SOD activities of the test groups significantly increased (p <0.05) compared to group 3.DTH SRBC challenged rats showed a comparable increase in thickness of rat footpad 24hr and 48hr after challenge. Administration of extract produced significant increase (p<0.05) in footpad swelling of the rats compared to control. Significant increase (p<0.05) in the primary and secondary SRBCs \u2013 specific mean antibody titre values after treatment was observed compared to control. Cyclophosphamide caused a significant (p<0.05) decrease in haematological parameters. Treatment with extract or levamisol resulted in a restoration of the bone marrow activity. Haematological parameters of the test groups significantly increased (p <0.05) compared to control. The findings indicated that the extract could be used in the management of ulcer and immunosuppressive disorders.<\/p>\n\n\n\n TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE<\/p>\n\n\n\n Title Page \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 i<\/p>\n\n\n\n Certification \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 ii<\/p>\n\n\n\n Dedication \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 iii<\/p>\n\n\n\n Acknowledgement \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 iv<\/p>\n\n\n\n Abstract \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 v<\/p>\n\n\n\n Table of Content \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 vi<\/p>\n\n\n\n List of Figures \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 xiii<\/p>\n\n\n\n List of Tables \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 xv<\/p>\n\n\n\n CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.1 Definition of ulcer \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 1<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.1.1 Brief history of peptic ulcer diseases \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 1<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.1.2 Pathogenesis of peptic ulcer \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 2<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.2 Factors that produce ulceration \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 3<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.2.1 Endogenous factors producing ulceration \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 3<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.2.1.1 Acetylcholine \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 3<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.2.1.2 Gastrin \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 4<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.2.1.3 Histamine \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 5<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.2.1.4 Somatostatin and Cholecystokinin \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 6<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.2.1.5 Calcium ion as a second messenger \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 6<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.2.1.6 Genetic factors \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 6<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.2.2 Exogenous factors producing ulceration \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 6<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.2.2.1 Helicobacter pyroli \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 6<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.2.2.2 Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 8<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.2.2.3 Ethanol \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 10<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.2.2.4 Cigarette smoking \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 10<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.2.2.5 Diet \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 10<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.2.2.6 Psychological factors (Stress ulcers) \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 11<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.2.3 Free radicals\/ reactive oxygen species \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 12<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.3 Diagnosis of ulcer \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 14<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.3.1 Endoscopy and Radiology approaches to the diagnosis of ulcer \u2013 \u2013 14<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.3.1.1 Culture \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 14<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.3.1.2 Histological assessment \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 15<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.3.1.3 Rapid urease tests \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 15<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.3.1.4 Polymerase chain reaction \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 15<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.3.2 Non-endoscopic diagnosis of ulcer \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 15<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.3.2.1 Antibody test \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 15<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.3.2.2 Urea breath test \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 16<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.3.2.3 Stool antigen test \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 16<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.4 Therapy for peptic ulcer \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 16<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.4.1 Non-pharmacological treatment of peptic ulcer disease \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 16<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.4.2 Pharmacological Treatment of peptic ulcer disease \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 17<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.5 An overview of the immune system \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 18<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.5.1 Immunomodulation \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 18<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.5.1.1 Immunostimulation \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 18<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.5.1.2 Immunosuppression \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 19<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.6 Humoral immunity \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 20<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.7 Cell-mediated immunity \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 21<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.8 Anaemia \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 22<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.8.1 Types of anaemia \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 23<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.8.1.1 Iron deficiency anaemia \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 23<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.8.1.2 Haemolyticanaemia \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 23<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.8.1.3 Acute haemorrhagicanaemia \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 23<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.8.1.4 Chronic haemorrhagic anemia \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 24<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.8.1.5 Perniciousanaemia \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 24<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.8.1.6 Aplastic anaemia \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 24<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.9 Haematological indices \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 25<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.9.1 Red blood cells (Erythrocytes) \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 25<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.9.2 Packed Cell Volume (PCV) \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 25<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.9.3 Haemoglobin \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 25<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.9.4 Total white blood cells (WBCs) count \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 26<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.10 Haematopoiesis \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 26<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.10.1 Vitamin B12 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 27<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.10.2 Folic acid \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 27<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.10.3 Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid) \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 28<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.10.4 Iron \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 28<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.10.5 Erythropoietin (EPO) \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 29<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.11 Phytochemicals \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 30<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.11.1 Phytochemical constituents in plants \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 30<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.11.1.1 Alkaloids \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 31<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.11.1.2 Flavonoids \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 31<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.11.1.3 Tannins \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 32<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.11.1.4 Steroids \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 33<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.11.1.5 Terpenoids \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 33<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.11.1.6 Saponins \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 34<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.12 Medicinal plants \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 34<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.12.1 Ficus capensis \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 35<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.12.1.1 Botanical outline of Ficus capensis \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 35<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.12.1.2 Uses of Ficus capensis \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 35<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.12.1.3 Taxonomy of Ficus capensis \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 37<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.13 Aim and Objectives of the study \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 37<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.13.1 Aim of the study \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 37<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.13.2 Specific objectives of the study \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 37<\/p>\n\n\n\n CHAPTER TWO: MATERIALS AND METHODS<\/p>\n\n\n\n 2.1 Materials \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 38<\/p>\n\n\n\n 2.1.1 Plant material \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 38<\/p>\n\n\n\n 2.1.2 Animal \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 38<\/p>\n\n\n\n 2.1.3 Chemicals and Reagents \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 38<\/p>\n\n\n\n 2.1.3.1 Chemicals \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 38<\/p>\n\n\n\n 2.1.3.2 Reagents \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 39<\/p>\n\n\n\n 2.2 Methods \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 41<\/p>\n\n\n\n 2.2.1 Aqueous extraction \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 41<\/p>\n\n\n\n 2.2.2 Determination of extract yield \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 41<\/p>\n\n\n\n 2.2.3 Phytochemical analysis \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 41<\/p>\n\n\n\n 2.2.3.1 Test for Terpenoids \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 41<\/p>\n\n\n\n 2.2.3.2 Test for Glycoside \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 41<\/p>\n\n\n\n 2.2.3.3 Test for Tanin \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 41<\/p>\n\n\n\n 2.2.3.4 Test for Cyanide \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 42<\/p>\n\n\n\n 2.2.3.5 Test for Soluble carbohydrate \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 42<\/p>\n\n\n\n 2.2.3.6 Test for Steroid \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 42<\/p>\n\n\n\n 2.2.3.7 Test for Saponin \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 42<\/p>\n\n\n\n 2.2.3.8 Test for Flavonoid \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 42<\/p>\n\n\n\n 2.2.3.9 Test for Reducing sugar \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 42<\/p>\n\n\n\n 2.2.3.10 Test for Alkaloid \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 43<\/p>\n\n\n\n 2.2.3.11 Test for Oil \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 43<\/p>\n\n\n\n 2.2.4 Acute toxicity and lethality \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 43<\/p>\n\n\n\n 2.2.5 Induction of ulcer \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 43<\/p>\n\n\n\n 2.2.5.1 Experimental design of ulcer \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 44<\/p>\n\n\n\n 2.2.5.2 Ulcer index \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 44<\/p>\n\n\n\n 2.2.6 Determination of lipid peroxidation (Malondialdehyde) concentration \u2013 45<\/p>\n\n\n\n 2.2.7 Assay of catalase activity \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 45<\/p>\n\n\n\n 2.2.8 Assay of superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 46<\/p>\n\n\n\n 2.2.9 Determination of glutathione (GSH) concentration \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 47<\/p>\n\n\n\n 2.2.10 Immunomodulatory methods \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 48<\/p>\n\n\n\n 2.2.10.1 Determination of delayed- Type Hypersensitivity (DTH) reaction \u2013 48<\/p>\n\n\n\n 2.2.10.2 Determination of Antibody titration (Humoral mediated response) \u2013 48<\/p>\n\n\n\n 2.2.10.3 Determination of cyclophosphamide induced myelosuppression in rats \u2013 49<\/p>\n\n\n\n 2.2.10.3.1Experimental Design of cyclophosphamide induced myelosuppression in rats 49<\/p>\n\n\n\n 2.2.10.3.2Determination of packed cell volume \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 50<\/p>\n\n\n\n 2.2.10.3.3Determination of haemoglobin (Hb) concentration \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 50<\/p>\n\n\n\n 2.2.10.3.4Determination of Red Blood Cells counts (RBCs) \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 51<\/p>\n\n\n\n 2.2.10.3.5Determination of Total White Blood Cell count \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 52<\/p>\n\n\n\n 2.3 Statistical Analysis \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 53<\/p>\n\n\n\n CHAPTER THREE: RESULTS<\/p>\n\n\n\n 3.1 Percentage yield of Aqueous Leaf Extract of Ficuscapensis \u2013 54<\/p>\n\n\n\n 3.2 Phytochemical Analysis \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 55<\/p>\n\n\n\n 3.2.1 Qualitative Phytochemical Screening of Ficuscapensis \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 55<\/p>\n\n\n\n 3.2.2 Quantitative Phytochemical Constituents of Aqueous Leaf Extract<\/p>\n\n\n\n of F. capensis \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 57<\/p>\n\n\n\n 3.3 Biological Effects of F. capensis \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 59<\/p>\n\n\n\n 3.3.1 Acute Toxicity (LD50) test of aqueous extract of the leaves of F. capensis 59<\/p>\n\n\n\n 3.3.2 Ulcerogenic Activity of the Extract \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 61<\/p>\n\n\n\n 3.3.2.1 Ulcer Index and Preventive Ratio of aqueous extract of the leaves of F. Capensis \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 61<\/p>\n\n\n\n 3.3.3 Enzymatic antioxidant \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 63<\/p>\n\n\n\n 3.3.3.1 Effect of aqueous extract of Ficus capensis leaves on Mean Catalase Activity on Diclophenac sodium-induced Gastric Lesion in<\/p>\n\n\n\n Wistar Albino Rats \u2014 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 63<\/p>\n\n\n\n 3.3.3.2 Effect of aqueous extract of Ficus capensis leaves on Mean Malondialdehyde<\/p>\n\n\n\n (MDA) concentration on Diclophenac sodium-induced Gastric Lesion in Wistar Albino Rats \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 65<\/p>\n\n\n\n 3.3.3.3 Effect of aqueous extract of Ficus capensis leaves on Mean superoxide dismutase (SOD) Activity on Diclophenac sodium-induced Gastric Lesion in Wistar Albino Rats \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 67<\/p>\n\n\n\n 3.3.3.4 Effect of aqueous extract of Ficus capensis leaves on Mean Glutathione (GSH)<\/p>\n\n\n\n Activity on Diclophenac sodium-induced Gastric Lesion in Wistar Albino Rats \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 69<\/p>\n\n\n\n 3.4 Immunomodulatory Activities of the Extract \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 71<\/p>\n\n\n\n 3.4.1 Effect of the extract on Delayed \u2013 Type Hypersensitivity (DTH) reaction \u2013 71<\/p>\n\n\n\n 3.4.2 Effect of the extract on Humoral antibody synthesis \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 73<\/p>\n\n\n\n 3.4.3 Cyclophosphamide Induced myelosuppression \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 75<\/p>\n\n\n\n 3.4.3.1 Treatment with Cyclophosphamide \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 75<\/p>\n\n\n\n 3.4.3.2 Treatment with levamisol \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 75<\/p>\n\n\n\n 3.4.3.3 Effects of aqueous extract on cyclophosphamide induced myelosuppression<\/p>\n\n\n\n on the Hb concentration of rats before and after induction with treatments 75<\/p>\n\n\n\n 3.4.3.4 Effects of aqueous extract on cyclophosphamide induced myelosuppression<\/p>\n\n\n\n on the RBC of rats before and after induction with treatments \u2013 \u2013 77<\/p>\n\n\n\n 3.4.3.5 Effects of aqueous extract on cyclophosphamide induced myelosuppression<\/p>\n\n\n\n on the PCV of rats before and after induction with treatments \u2013 \u2013 79<\/p>\n\n\n\n 3.4.3.6 Effects of aqueous extract on cyclophosphamide induced myelosuppression<\/p>\n\n\n\n on the WBC of rats before and after induction with treatments \u2013 \u2013 81<\/p>\n\n\n\n CHAPTER FOUR: DISCUSSION<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4.1 Conclusion \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 92<\/p>\n\n\n\n 4.2 Suggestions for Further studies \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 92<\/p>\n\n\n\n REFERENCES \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 93<\/p>\n\n\n\n APPENDICES \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 109<\/p>\n\n\n\n LIST OF FIGURES<\/p>\n\n\n\n Fig. 1: Role of aggressive and defensive factors in the pathogenesis of peptic ulcer<\/p>\n\n\n\n (Adopted from Robbin and Cotran\u2019s Pathologic Basis of Disease) \u2013 \u2013 3<\/p>\n\n\n\n Fig. 2: The role of gastrin in the regulation of acid secretion \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 4<\/p>\n\n\n\n Fig. 3: Mechanism involved in regulation of gastric acid secretion by the parietal cells \u2013 5<\/p>\n\n\n\n Fig.4: Structure of Diclofenac-sodium \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 10<\/p>\n\n\n\n Fig. 5: Pathway showing several mechanisms of free radical generation in the body \u2013 12<\/p>\n\n\n\n Fig. 6: Classification of various drugs used in the treatment of peptic ulcer 17<\/p>\n\n\n\n Fig 7: Cyclophosphamide \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 20<\/p>\n\n\n\n Fig. 8: Ficuscapensis \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 36<\/p>\n\n\n\n Fig. 9: Effect of aqueous leave extract of Ficuscapensis on Mean Catalase Activity<\/p>\n\n\n\n on Diclophenac sodium-induced Gastric Lesion in Wistar Albino Rats \u2013 \u2013 64<\/p>\n\n\n\n Fig. 10:Effect of aqueous leave extract of Ficuscapensis on mean malondialdehyde (MDA) concentration on Diclophenac sodium-induced Gastric Lesion in Wistar Albino Rats \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 66<\/p>\n\n\n\n Fig.11: Effect of aqueous leave extract of Ficuscapensison mean superoxide dismutase (SOD) Activity on Diclophenac sodium-induced Gastric Lesion in<\/p>\n\n\n\n Wistar Albino Rats \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 68<\/p>\n\n\n\n Fig.12: Effect of aqueous leave extract of Ficuscapensis on mean Glutathione (GSH) Activity on Diclophenac sodium-induced Gastric Lesion in Wistar Albino Rats \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 70<\/p>\n\n\n\n Fig. 13:Delayed \u2013 Type Hypersensitivity (DTH) reaction \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 72<\/p>\n\n\n\n Fig. 14:Humoral Antibody Synthesis \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 74<\/p>\n\n\n\n Fig.15: Effect of aqueous extract on cyclophosphamine induced myelosuppression on Hb of rats before and after induction with treatments \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 76<\/p>\n\n\n\n Fig.16: Effect of aqueous extract on cyclophosphamide induced myelosuppression on RBC of rats before and after induction \u2013 \u2013 78<\/p>\n\n\n\n Fig. 17:Effect of aqueous extract of cyclophosphamide induced myelosuppression on PCV rats before and after induction with treatments \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 80<\/p>\n\n\n\n Fig.18: Effect of aqueous extract on cyclophosphamide induced myelosuppression on WBC of rats before and after induction with treatments \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 82<\/p>\n\n\n\n LIST OF TABLES<\/p>\n\n\n\n Table 1: Preliminary Phytochemical Screening Aqueous Leaf Extract of Ficuscapensis \u2013 56<\/p>\n\n\n\n Table 2: Quantitative Phytochemical Constituents of Aqueous Leaf Extract of Ficuscapensis-58<\/p>\n\n\n\n Table 3: The median lethal dose of aqueous extract of the leaves of F. Capensis \u2013 \u2013 60<\/p>\n\n\n\n Table 4: Effect of aqueous extract of the leaves of F. Capensis on Diclophenac sodium -induced gastric lesion on Wistar albino rats \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 \u2013 62<\/p>\n\n\n\n CHAPTER ONE<\/p>\n\n\n\n INTRODUCTION<\/p>\n\n\n\n Plant materials are sources of shelter, food and medicinal compounds which have been known to play a dominant role in the maintenance of human health in most rural communities in the developing countries (Oduola et al., 2005). Herbal medicine is fast emerging as an alternative treatment to available synthetic drugs for the treatment of diseases possibly due to lower cost, availability, fewer adverse effects and perceived effectiveness (Ubaka et al., 2010). The World Health Organisation (WHO) has shown great interest in plant derived medicines which have been described in the folklore medicines of many countries (Mukheerjee, 2002). However, the historic role of medicinal plants in the treatment and prevention of diseases and their role as catalysts in the development of pharmacology do not however, assure their safety for uncontrolled use by an uninformed public (Matthews et al., 1999). In Enugu State of Nigeria, many plants are used in herbal medicine to treat diseases, as well as to promote rapid healing of wound and sores (Dimo et al., 2002).<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1.1 Ulcer<\/p>\n\n\n\n An inflammatory, usually suppurating, lesion on the skin or internal mucous surface that results in necrosis is referred to as ulcer (Nwodo, 2012). A peptic ulcer also known as ulcer pepticum or peptic ulcer disease (PUD) is defined as a disruption of the mucosal integrity of stomach, duodenum or oesophagus leading to a local defect or excavation due to active inflammation (Adreoli et al., 2008).<\/p>\n\n\n\n HOW TO RECEIVE PROJECT MATERIAL(S)<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n After paying the appropriate amount (#5,000) into our bank Account below, send the following information to<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n 08068231953 or 08168759420<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n (1) Your project topics<\/p>\n\n\n\n (2) Email Address<\/p>\n\n\n\n (3) Payment Name<\/p>\n\n\n\n (4) Teller Number<\/p>\n\n\n\n We will send your material(s) after we receive bank alert<\/p>\n\n\n\n BANK ACCOUNTS<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n Account Name: AMUTAH DANIEL CHUKWUDI<\/p>\n\n\n\n Account Number: 0046579864<\/p>\n\n\n\n Bank: GTBank.<\/p>\n\n\n\n OR<\/p>\n\n\n\n Account Name: AMUTAH DANIEL CHUKWUDI<\/p>\n\n\n\n Account Number: 3139283609<\/p>\n\n\n\n Bank: FIRST BANK<\/p>\n\n\n\n FOR MORE INFORMATION, CALL:<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n 08068231953 or 08168759420<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n AFFILIATE LINKS:<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n easyprojectmaterials.com<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n